Side discussion:
Dictation/domination
Negotiation/compromise
Consultation
	Everyone focusses on what is best for the whole
	Not on getting their own way
	Requires truthfulness
	Can have clashes
Consensus
	Often the best answer
	But can be time consuming to reach

Chapter 13: requirements discovery
Socio-Organizational Issues and Stakeholder Requirements
	Power relationships and conflicts
	Organizational context
	Socio-technical – both human and technical requirements
	Soft systems methodology : broad view on issues
	Participatory design
		Ethnographic methods
		Study users in context
		Goal is to avoid bias
13.1 technology does not exist in a vacuum
	Stakeholders can be complex and contradictory
	Too often requirements focus on functional and less on non-functional
	Do not leave out any users

13.2	organizational issues
	(determine success or failure of system)
	
	Cooperation or conflict?
		People and groups have conflicting goals
		Manipulation of inventory is a long standing tradition
		System takes control of inventory—prior workarounds are lost
		Keeping personal information out of the system is common
		People not following the official procedure is very common
		(They believe their workaround works better for them)
		Some people just like to be in control of something
		Be wary of taking power, influence, control, information from someone
			(without providing a return)

Changing power structures
	ALL organizations have informal networks
	Official communications go up and down
	Informal more likely to go sideways
	Physical proximity promotes loyalty
	Zoom/email can lack non-verbal clues
	Some companies monitor emails

	Invisible worker
		Workers over different sites, tele-commuting
		Management by presence
		Management by objective
		Promotion by familiarity
		
	Who benefits from the system?
		Workers do not necessarily benefit from the system
	Who does the effort?
		Who has secretaries?
	Symmetry:
		Users should get a benefit
	Free rider
		In discussion, making a contribution is harder than just listening
		
	Critical mass
		A system used by only a few is more expensive (per user)
		Cell phones
			Benefits with only a few users
		Credit cards
			Department stores
		NOW ‘everybody’ has cell phone, email, credit card…..

	Automating processes
		(re)structuring can conflict with informal patterns
	Business process re-engineering
		Send accounts to credit department to be approved
		Give a list of credit limits/scores to sales
		Hard to quantify:
			Contentment
			Satisfaction
			Competitive edge
			Customer loyalty
			Etc

13.3 capturing requirements
	Who are the stakeholders?
		Who is affected?
		Who gets the information?
		Who sends or gathers the information?
		Who will suffer from the system?
	ANYONE affected by success/failure/performance is a stakeholder
		Primary—use system
		Secondary—receive output or give input
		Tertiary—people affected by success or failure of system as a whole
		Facilitating—systems people
	Example: hospital
		Nurses, doctors, … (insurance companies) PATIENTS
	Socio-technical models
		Some claim that humans do not need to adapt to technology
		Interaction between humans and technology is focus
	   Methods
		Why is tech proposed?
		What does it solve?
		Stakeholders?
		Workgroups?
		Changes?
		How will tech work?
		What are the external constraints?
	CUSTOM methodology
		Describe organizational context
		Identify and describe stakeholders
		Identify and describe workgroups
		Task object pairs
			For each task, what units are involved?
			(what methods for each object?)
		Stakeholder needs
		Consolidate and check stakeholder requirements
	OSTA open system task analysis
		Task to be supported
		Task inputs
		External environment
		Transformations
		Social system
		Technical system
		Performance satisfaction criteria
		THEN specify system

Soft system methodology
	Understand the system don’t assume tech is the only solution
	Recognize problem: rich picture
	Root
		Clients
		Actors
		Transformations
		Weltanschauung (paradigm or perspective)
		Owner
		Environment
	Conceptual model
	
Participatory design
	Involve everyone
	Brainstorming
	Storyboarding
	Workshops
	Pen and paper walk thrus

ETHICS: Effective Tech Human Implementation of Computer systems
	Stakeholders as participants in decision making
		Conflicts negotiated
		Consultative
		Representative
		Consensus
	Make case for change
	Identify boundaries
	Describe existing system
	Define key objectives
	Define key tasks
	Diagnose efficiency needs
	Diagnose satisfaction needs
	Analyze likely future changes
	Prioritize objectives
		Efficiency
		Satisfaction
		Future needs
	
	Ethnographic methods
		(workers in their own situation)

	Contextual inquiry
		Investigator apprenticed to user to learn task
		User is encouraged to lead investigation
		Sequence model
		Physical model
		Flow model
		Cultural model
		Artifact model